Dr. O.P. Gill

Vice-Chancellor

Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology,

University Campus, Udaipur-313 001 (Raj.) INDIA

Phone # 91-294-2471101 (O) 2427691(R) Fax: 2470682

1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Importance of Dryland Farming

1.3 Classification of Dryland Agriculture

1.3.1 Dry Farming

1.3.2 Dryland Farming

1.3.3 Rain fed farming

1.4 Characteristics of Dryland Farming

1.4.1 Rainfall

1.4.2 Major soil groups

1.4.3 Crops

1.5 Crop Planning and Climate Analysis

1.6 Main Constraints of Dryland Areas for Improving Productivity

1.7 Policy Issues in Dryland Farming

References

Exercises

2 Climatic Classification of Dryland Areas

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Climatic and Agroclimatic Regions

2.3 Some Important Terms

2.4 Techniques of Agroclimatic Regionalisation

2.5 Climatic Classification

2.5.1 Methods of comparing agricultural potentials

2.5.2 Selianinov's method

2.5.3 Uchijima (1962) method

2.5.4 Thran and Broakhuizen method

2.5.5 Hargreaves Methods

2.5.6 OMAI index

2.5.7 Papadakis method

2.5.8 Lang’s Classification

2.5.9 De Martonne’s classification

2.5.10  Koppen’s classification

2.5.11 Gaussen’s classification

2.5.12 Emberger’s classification

2.5.13 Thornthwaite (1948) classification

2.5.14 Modified climatic classification of Thornthwaite and Mather (1955)

2.5.15 Troll’s classification

2.6 Techniques for Agro Climatic Regionalisation for Small Geographical Areas

2.6.1 Krishnan and Singh’s Methods

2.6.2 Cocheme and Franquin method

2.6.3 NCA method

2.6.4 Duggal’s method

2.6.5 Sharma, Singh and Yadav’s method

2.6.6 Mavi and Mahi’s method

2.7 Soil Climatic Zone

References

Exercises

3 Rainfall and Water Balance Analysis

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Some Important Definitions

3.3 Sample Statistics

3.3.1  Measure of central tendency

3.3.2  Measure of variation

3.4 Measures of Symmetry

3.5 Measure of Peakedness or Flatness

3.6 Different Types of Probability Distributions

3.6.1 Probability distribution of discrete random variable

3.6.1.1 Binomial distribution

3.6.1.2 Geometric distribution

3.6.1.3 Poisson distribution

3.6.2 Continuous probability distributions

3.6.2.1 Normal distribution

3.6.2.2 Log-Normal distribution

3.6.2.3 Pearson type–III Distribution (PT3)

3.6.2.4 Log Pearson Type III Distribution (LP3)

3.6.2.5 Gamma Distribution

3.6.2.6 Truncated Gamma distribution

3.6.2.7 Extreme value type I or Gumbel distribution

3.6.2.8 Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution

3.6.2.9 Log Pearson Type III Distribution

3.6.2.10 Log Normal distribution

3.7 Markov chain

3.7.1 To Fit the Markov Model and to Test the Goodness of Fit

3.7.2 Steps to be followed in the Estimation of Markov chain Model

3.7.3 Practical Situation where Markov Model can be Applied

3.8 Rainfall Characteristics

3.8.1 Onset of effective monsoon (OEM)

3.8.2 Withdrawal of effective monsoon (WEM)

3.8.3  Length of rainy season

3.8.4 Dry spells

3.8.5 Wet spells

3.9 Water Balance

3.9.1  Concept of water balance

3.9.2 Water balance methods

(a) Thornthwaite’s water balance method

(b) FAO model

(c) Versatile soil moisture budget

References

Exercises

4 Climate and Weather Forecasting

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Classification of Atmosphere

4.2.1  Atmospheric structure

4.3 Weather Elements

4.3.1 Solar Radiation

4.3.2 Air temperature

4.3.3 Atmospheric pressure

4.3.4 Wind

4.3.5 Humidity

4.3.6 Evaporation

4.3.7 Precipitation

4.3.8 Clouds

4.4 Hydrologic Cycle

4.5 Monsoons

4.5.1 South-West Monsoon

4.7.2  North-East Monsoon

4.6 Seasons

4.6.1 Cold Weather Period

4.6.2 Hot Weather Period

4.6.3 South-West Monsoon Period

4.6.4 North-East Monsoon Period

4.7 Weather Abnormalities

4.7.1 Floods

4.7.2 Droughts

4.7.3 Other Abnormalities

4.8 Weather Forecasting

4.9 Weather Forecasting Organisations

4.10 Weather Elements and Time Factor

4.11 Types of Weather Forecasting

4.11.1 Application of short range forecasting in agriculture

4.11.2 Application of extended forecast in agriculture

4.11.3 Application of long range forecast

4.12 Meteorological Satellite Based Weather Forecasting

4.13 Preparation of a Weather Outlook for the Farmers

4.14 Operational Forecasts

4.15 Methods of Forecasting

4.15.1 Synoptic Method

4.15.2 Statistical Methods

4.15.3 Numerical Weather prediction Method

4.16 Weather Modification

4.16.1 Artificial rain making

4.16.2 Reduction of wind velocity and its losses

References

Exercises

5 Arable Land Resources Management

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Land Capability Classification

5.3 Soil and Land Capability Suitability Surveys

5.4 Land Capability and Their Suitability Classification

5.5 Soil Erosion

5.5.1 Soil erosion by water

5.5.2 Soil erosion by wind

5.6 Controlling Soil Erosion

5.7 Arable Land Resources Management (ALRM)

5.7.1 Mechanical measures

5.7.1.1 Land levelling and grading

5.7.1.2 Contour bunding

5.7.1.3 Graded bunding

5.7.1.4 Terracing

5.7.1.5 Bench terracing

5.7.1.6 Grade stabilization structures

5.7.1.7 Bench terraces with stone walls

5.7.1.8. Safe disposal structure for runoff water

5.7.1.9  Detention reservoir

5.7.1.10 Agronomic practices

5.7.2 Conservation practices

References

Exercises

6 Nonarable Land Resources Management (NALRM)

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Gully

6.2.1 Gully Formation

6.2.2 Gully classification

6.3 Measures for non-arable land Resource Management (NALRM)

6.3.1 Contour trenching

6.3.2 Small boring pits

6.3.3 Bamboo geogrid

6.3.4 Gradonies

6.3.5 Box-cum pit method

6.3.6 PRT (Puerto Rico Terrace)

6.3.7 Gully Control Measures

6.3.7.1 Vegetative control measures

6.3.7.2 Temporary gully control structures

6.3.7.3 Semi permanent gully control measures

6.3.7.4 Permanent gully control structures

6.4 Gully and Ravine Reclamation Measures

6.4.1 Construction of graded contour and peripheral bunds

6.4.2 River/nalla bank protection

6.4.3 Gully plugging

6.4.4 Percolation embankment

6.4.5 Prevention of grazing and other biotic interferences

6.5 Reclamation of Gullies

References

Exercises

7 Water Resource Management

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Water Conservation Principle

7.3 Water Resources Management Techniques

7.4 Inter–terrace Management Techniques

7.4.1. General smoothening of lands

7.4.2. Zing–terracing

7.4.3. Compartmental bunding

7.4.4. Tied ridging

7.4.5. Scooping

7.4.6. Ridge and furrow system

7.4.7 Bed and furrow system

7.4.8 Bedding system

7.4.9 Corrugations

7.4.10 Ridge and furrow and bedding systems

7.5 Engineering Measures

7.5.1 Conservation terraces

7.5.2 Contour terracing and contour trenching

7.5.3 Stone Terracing

7.5.4 Contour bunding

7.6 Cultivation and Cropping System

7.6.1 Contour cultivation

7.6.2 Strip cropping

7.6.3 Crops and cropping systems

7.6.4 Live bunds

7.6.5 Tillage practices

7.6.6. Weeding and hoeing

7.7 Rain Water Harvesting

7.7.1 Classification of rain water harvesting techniques

7.7.1.1 Run off harvesting short term storage

7.7.1.2 Flood water Harvesting–Short term Storage

7.7.1.3 Floodwater-Harvesting Long–term Storage

7.8 Farm Ponds

7.8.1 Types of ponds

7.8.2 Components of a farm pond

7.8.3 Design of farm ponds

7.8.3.1 Site selection

7.8.3.2 Capacity of the pond

7.8.3.3 Rainfall-runoff relationships

7.8.3.4 Procedure for the design of water harvesting pond (WHP)

7.8.3.5 Design of embankment

7.8.3.6 Spillway for farm ponds

7.9 Reduction of Water Losses

7.9.1 Evaporation from water surface and soil surface

7.9.1.1 Reducing evaporation from water surface

7.9.1.2 Reducing evaporation from soil surface

7.9.2 Reducing seepage losses

7.9.3 Reducing transpiration

7.9.3.1 Factors affecting transpiration

7.9.3.2  Reduction of Transpiration losses

7.9.4 Reducing deep percolation

7.9.5 Reducing evapotranspiration

7.10 Frequency Analysis for Rainwater Management

7.11 Drought Analysis for Rainwater Management

References

Exercises

8 Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Some Important Process and Definition

8.3 Measurement of Evapotranspiration

8.3.1 Lysimeter experiments

8.3.2. Field experimental plots

8.3.3. Soil moisture depletion method

8.3.4. Water balance method

8.3.5. Estimation of evapotranspiration from climatological data

8.3.5.1  Methods using single weather parameter

8.3.5.2  Methods using two weather parameters as input

8.3.5.3  Combination method

8.4 Irrigation Scheduling

8.4.1  How Much to Apply

8.4.2  When to Irrigate (Irrigation Frequency)

8.4.3  Irrigation Period

8.5 Irrigation Scheduling Techniques

8.5.1 Irrigation scheduling based on soil moisture Content

8.5.2 Irrigation scheduling based on Plant Characters

8.5.3 Irrigation scheduling based on Weather parameters

References

Exercises

9 Efficient Utilization of Rain Water

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Water Use Efficiency

9.3 Need for Increasing Water Use Efficiency

9.4 Principles of Improving Water Use Efficiency

9.5 Measures for Improving Water use Efficiency

9.5.1 Climatic conditions

9.5.2  Agronomic measures

9.5.3  Crop geometry and crop management

9.5.4. Reduction of water losses

9.5.4.1 Measure to control transpiration

9.5.4.2 Reduction of deep percolation losses

9.5.4.3 Mulching

9.5.4.4 Use of shelterbelts

9.6 Recycling of Harvested Water

9.6.1 Response of life saving irrigation

9.6.2  Response of method of irrigation

9.7 Irrigation Application Methods

9.7.1 Furrow irrigation

9.7.2 Sprinkler Irrigation

9.7.3 Drip Irrigation

References

Exercises

10 Crop Planning

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Crop Planning

10.2.1 Rainfall and its distribution

10.2.2 Length of growing season

10.2.3 Water demands of crop/ cropping system

10.2.4 Matching the length of growing season and duration

10.3 Cropping Systems

10.4 Aberrant Situation

10.5 Contingent Crop Planning

10.5.1 Crop panning under normal season

10.5.2 Crop panning under aberrant weather conditions

10.5.2.1 Early season stress

10.5.2.2 Mid-season stress

10.5.2.3 Terminal stress

10.5.2.4 Delayed onset of monsoon

10.5.2.5 Early withdrawal of monsoon

10.5.2.6 Extended monsoon

10.6 Crop Diversification for Aberrant Weather

10.7 Contingent Crop Planning for rabi with Weather Aberrations

10.8 Crop Planning for Alternate Land Use

(i) Silvi-pasture (Tree+Pasture)

(ii) Agri-silviculture (Tree + crops)

(iii) Agro-horticulture (Fruit trees + crops)

(iv) Alley cropping (Hedges + crops)

(v) Ley farming

References

Exercises

11 Tillage and Sowing Implements

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Seedbed Preparation for Upland Crops

11.3 Classification of Tillage Operation

11.4 Tillage Requirements under Different Agro-Climatic Conditions

11.5 Traditional Tillage Implements

11.6 Improved Tillage Implements

11.6.1  Animal drawn implements

11.6.2  Tractor drawn implements

11.7 Selection of Power and Machinery

11.8 Measures to Improve Productivity of Drylands

11.9 Need for Improved Implements

11.9.1 Timeliness

11.9.1.1 Timely weed control

11.9.1.2 Timely fertilizer application

11.9.2 Precision

11.9.2.1 Seeding

11.9.2.2 Placement of fertilizer

11.10 Forces Acting on a Tillage Tool or Implement

11.11 Mechanics of Tillage

11.12 The Field Capacity of Implement

11.12.1 Factors affecting field capacity

11.12.2 Time losses in turning

11.12.3 Time losses due to machine reliability

11.13 Analysis of External Forces

11.14 Factors Affecting Design of Tillage Tool

11.15 Tractor Hitches

11.16 Mechanics of Hitching

11.17 Disc Ploughs and Harrows

11.18 Sowing and Planting Implements

11.18.1  Traditional Sowing Methods

11.18.2  Function of seed–drills and Planters

11.18.3  Seedbeds for seeding and Planting

11.18.4  Seed Metering Devices

11.18.5  Furrow openers

11.18.6 Factors Affecting Seed Germination and Emergence

11.18.7  Seed rate adjustment

11.19 Improved Animal Drawn Mustard Drill (HAU)

References

Exercises

12 Weeding Implements

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Types of Weeding Tools

12.2.1 Manual weeding Tools

12.2.2 Animal Drawn Multipurpose Hoe

12.2.3 Tractor Mounted Earthing cum Interculture Equipment

12.2.4 Power operated weeding tools

12.3 Requirements and Adjustment of Weeding and Intercultural Tools

12.4 Performance of Weeding and Inter-cultivation Tools

12.5 Other Techniques for Weeding

12.5.1 Flame Weed Control

12.5.2 Chemical Weed Control

12.6 Rotavator

References

Exercises

13 Plant Protection Equipments

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Types of Equipment and Field Crop Sprayers

13.2.1  Types of Equipment

13.2.2  Types of field crop sprayers

13.3 Atomizing Devices

13.3.1  Hydraulic Nozzles

13.3.2  Flow Rates and Spray Angles

13.4 Factors Affecting Droplet Size

13.5 Distributions and Determination of Droplet Size

13.5.1 Distribution of droplet size

13.5.2  Determination of droplet size distribution

13.6 Classification of Spraying Techniques

13.7 Types of Agitation

13.7.1 Mechanical Agitation

13.7.2 Hydraulic Agitation

13.8 Hydraulic Sprayers

13.9 Hand Operated Sprayers

13.10 Types of duster

References

Exercises

14 Energy Utilization Pattern

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Energy Utilization from Different Sources

14.3 Energy Use Patterns

14.3.1  Energy Use Pattern in Domestic

14.3.2 Energy Use Pattern in Agriculture

14.4 Labour Input for Different Operations

14.5 Energy Input Output under Different Cropping Systems

14.6 Energy Inputs for the Production, Formulation, Packaging, and Transport of Various Pesticides

14.7 Estimation of energy in Farm Machinery and Buildings

14.7.1 Estimation of Energy Embodied in the Farm Machinery

14.7.2 Farm Service Buildings

14.8 Energy Conservation Measures in Dryland Areas

References

Exercises
 

15 Sources of Energy

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Classification of Energy Sources

15.3 Environmental Consequences

15.4 Different Options of Energy Resources

15.4.1 Nuclear Fission

15.4.2 Fusion power

15.4.3 Direct Conversion

15.4.4 Wind Power

15.4.5 Hydro Power

15.4.6 Biomass

15.5 Energy Substitution

References

Exercises

16 Harvesting and Threshing Implements

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Effect of Harvesting Methods on Quality of Product

16.3 Time of Harvesting

16.4 Principle of Cutting

16.5 Method of Harvesting

16.5.1  Traditional method of harvesting

16.5.2  Mechanical harvesting equipment

16.6 Different type of harvesting tools/equipment, suitability for crops and their limitations

16.7 Factors Affecting Performance of Harvesting Machines

16.8 Suitability of Harvesting Methods for Different Crops

16.8.1 Cereal crops

16.8.2 Pulse crops

16.8.3 Oilseed crops

16.9 Mechanical Harvesting Machines

16.9.1 Flail Mowers

16.9.2 Mower

16.9.2.1 Types of mower cutter bar and Functional parameters

16.9.2.2 Conventional Mower Cutter bar

16.9.2.3 Knife drive system

16.9.2.4 Knife clearances and cutting velocities

16.9.2.5 Cutter bar Alignment

16.9.3 Reaper

16.9.4 Reaper-cum-binder

16.9.5 Combine

16.9.5.1 Some important terms

16.9.5.2 Size relations for functional components

16.9.5.3 Different operations of combine

16.9.5.4 Straw Walker performance

16.9.5.5 Walker length

16.9.5.6 The cleaning shoe

16.9.5.7 Shoe separation principles

16.9.5.8 Combine performance

16.9.5.9 Power requirements in combine

16.10 Other Mechanical Harvesting Machines

16.10.1 Corn Harvesting Machines

16.10.1.1 Components of corn picker

16.10.1.2 Adjustment in corn picker

16.10.2 Cotton harvesting machines

16.10.3 Sugar beet harvesters

16.10.4 Peanut harvesters

16.10.5 Potato harvesters

16.10.6 Tomato harvesters

16.10.7 Green peas harvester

16.10.8 Fruit harvester

16.10.9 Sugarcane Harvesters

16.10.10 Chaff cutter and forage harvesters

16.11 Problems in Harvesting

16.12 Threshing and Winnowing

16.12.1 Thresher

16.12.1.1 Types of threshing mechanisms

16.12.1.2 Working principle of a Thresher

16.12.1.3 Different types of threshers and their suitability for crops

16.12.1.4 Performance of Combine Threshing Cylinder

16.13 Other Machines

16.13.1 Maize sheller

16.13.2 Sugarcane crusher

16.13.3 Jute crusher

16.13.4 Groundnut decorticator

16.13.5 Feed grinder

References

Exercises

17 Communication Facilities, Agribusiness and Resource Centre

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Status and Perspective of Communication and IT in Agriculture

17.3 Issues and Key Factors for Communication and IT in Agriculture

17.4 Key to Convince Farmers of the Potential Decision Support System (DSS)

17.4.1 Efficient data collection

17.4.2 Case-based decision support

17.4.3 Easy user interface

17.4.4 Distributed system

17.5 Communication and IT for Agribusiness

17.5.1 Meaning and types of E-agribusiness

17.5.2 Scope and Advantages of E-Agribusiness

17.5.3 E-agribusiness: global scenario

17.5.4 E-agribusiness: Indian perspective

17.5.5 E-agribusiness and WTO

17.5.6 E-agribusiness : constraints and remedial measures

17.6 Use of Electronic Mass Media in India for Agriculture Extension

17.6.1 Role of information technology in Indian scenario

17.6.2 Increasing the use of information technology (IT)

17.6.3 Use of IT in agriculture marketing

17.6.4 Private information shops/kiosks

17.6.5 Role of Portal in Various Agricultural Activities

17.6.6 Present constraints in use of electronic mass media

17.7 Resource Centre

17.8 Opportunities of Communication

References

Exercises

18 Value Addition of Agricultural Products

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Concept

18.3 Scope in India

18.4 Strategies for Value Addition

18.5 Forms of Processing

18.6 Value Addition of Different Agricultural Commodities

18.7 Constraints and Actions for Value Addition in Food Sector in India

18.8 Recent Trends for Value Addition In Food Sector

18.9 Strategies for Growth and Development of Food Sector in India

References

Exercises

19 Storage of Grain

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Factors Affecting Storage

19.3 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air

19.4 Moisture Content of Agricultural Products

19.5 Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)

19.6 Sources and Insect Infestation

19.7 Drying

19.8 Drying Principles

19.9 Thermal efficiency (Heat Utilization Factor)

19.10 Heat and Mass Transfer

19.11 Artificial Drying with Unheated Air

19.12 Kind of Storage

19.13 Principles of Storage

19.14 Classfication and Design of Grain Storage Bins

19.15 Storage of Seeds

19.15.1  Providing safe storage conditions

19.15.2  Kinds of storage

19.15.3  Storage management

19.15.4  Stacking management

19.16 Storage of Fodder

19.16.1  Hay

19.16.2  Silage

19.16.3  Design of silo

19.17 Design of Elevator

19.17.1  Trough belt

19.17.2  Screw conveyor

19.17.3  Bucket Elevator

References

Exercises

20 Food and Livelihood Security of Dryland Farmers

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Livelihood Security in India

20.3 Livelihood security – A Review

20.4 Context and Definition of Food Security

20.5 Food and Nutritional Security

20.6 Factors Affecting Food Security in Drylands

20.6.1 Income poverty

20.6.2 National food supply

20.6.3 Drought and household food security

20.6.4 Violent conflicts

20.6.5 Education and status of women

20.7 Strategies to Enhance Livelihood Security

20.7.1 Livelihood promotion (Development-oriented Programming)

20.7.2 Livelihood Protection (Rehabilitation/ mitigation–oriented Programming)

20.7.3 Livelihood provisioning (Relief-oriented Programming)

20.8 Measures and Issues

20.9 The Vision and the Strategy

20.9.1 Maintenance of natural resources

20.9.2. Resource conservation technologies

20.9.3. Post-production management and value addition

20.9.4. Precision farming

20.9.5. Gender equity issues

20.9.6. Globalization of agriculture

20.9.7 Transfer of technology through new extension approaches

20.9.8 Enhancing nutritional quality

20.9.9. Food and nutrition programmes

20.9.10. Growth on a sustainable basis

20.9.11. Accessibility to balanced food

20.10 Conclusion

References

Exercises

21. Alternate Landuse Planning

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Need for Alternate Landuse

21.3 Classification of Alternate Landuse Systems

21.4 Alternatice Landuse Pertaining to Degraded Lands

21.4.1 Agrisilviculture (trees + crops)

21.4.2 Silvipasture (trees + grass)

21.4.3 Silvi pastural system (Trees + forages)

21.4.4 Alley cropping (Tree or shrub + crops)

21.4.5 Ley farming

21.4.6 Selection of tree species for agri-silvi systems

21.5 Alternate Landuse Pertainin to Agri-horti System/silvi-horti System

21.6 Alternate Landuse Pertaining to Meditional Industrial and Aromatic Plants

21.6.1 Meditional plants

21.6.2 Industrial biomass production

21.6.3 Aromatic plants

21.7 Techniques of Alternate Landuse Planning

21.7.1 Agroecological approach

21.7.2 FAO approach

21.7.3 Actual and potential productivity

21.8 Sustainable Landuse Planning

21.9 Constraints in cultivation and Adoption of Alternate Landuse

21.10 Land Evaluation for Development of Alternate Landuse Plans

References

Exercises

22 Watershed Management and Evaluations

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Watershed Management

22.3 Objectives of the Integrated Watershed Management

22.4 Participatory Watershed Management

22.5 Watershed Characteristics and Factors Affecting Watershed behaviour

22.6 Watershed Planning

22.7 Controlling Sedimentation of Reservoirs

22.8 Watershed Work Plans

22.9 Evaluation Procedure

22.10 Indicators of Watershed Development

22.10.1 Bio-Physical indicators

22.10.2 Economic indicators

22.10.3  Other economic indicators

22.10.4   Technical and ecological indicators

22.10.5  Other technical indicators

22.10.6 Water Resources development indicators

22.10.7  Peoples’ participation index

22.10.8  Satellite imagery

22.10.9  Other social and behavioural indicators

22.10.10 Criteria and indicators for group performance of SHGs, UGS and
               WDCs

References

Exercises

APPENDICES

A Specifications of some commonly available sprinkler equipment

B Performance of rotary sprinklers

C Definition of standards and equivalents

D Symbols, dimensions and derived units of standard quantity

E Conversion factors for common and not-so-common units

F Standard relationships for conversion ID units

G Mathematical Symbols and the Greek Alphabet

H Mathematical Formula

I Values of Trignometric Functions

Subject Index