1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of Dryland Farming
1.3 Classification of Dryland Agriculture
1.3.1 Dry Farming
1.3.2 Dryland Farming
1.3.3 Rain fed farming
1.4 Characteristics of Dryland Farming
1.4.1 Rainfall
1.4.2 Major soil groups
1.4.3 Crops
1.5 Crop Planning and Climate Analysis
1.6 Main Constraints of Dryland Areas for Improving Productivity
1.7 Policy Issues in Dryland Farming
References
Exercises
2 Climatic Classification of Dryland Areas
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Climatic and Agroclimatic Regions
2.3 Some Important Terms
2.4 Techniques of Agroclimatic Regionalisation
2.5 Climatic Classification
2.5.1 Methods of comparing agricultural potentials
2.5.2 Selianinov's method
2.5.3 Uchijima (1962) method
2.5.4 Thran and Broakhuizen method
2.5.5 Hargreaves Methods
2.5.6 OMAI index
2.5.7 Papadakis method
2.5.8 Lang’s Classification
2.5.9 De Martonne’s classification
2.5.10 Koppen’s classification
2.5.11 Gaussen’s classification
2.5.12 Emberger’s classification
2.5.13 Thornthwaite (1948) classification
2.5.14 Modified climatic classification of Thornthwaite and Mather (1955)
2.5.15 Troll’s classification
2.6 Techniques for Agro Climatic Regionalisation for Small Geographical Areas
2.6.1 Krishnan and Singh’s Methods
2.6.2 Cocheme and Franquin method
2.6.3 NCA method
2.6.4 Duggal’s method
2.6.5 Sharma, Singh and Yadav’s method
2.6.6 Mavi and Mahi’s method
2.7 Soil Climatic Zone
References
Exercises
3 Rainfall and Water Balance Analysis
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Some Important Definitions
3.3 Sample Statistics
3.3.1 Measure of central tendency
3.3.2 Measure of variation
3.4 Measures of Symmetry
3.5 Measure of Peakedness or Flatness
3.6 Different Types of Probability Distributions
3.6.1 Probability distribution of discrete random variable
3.6.1.1 Binomial distribution
3.6.1.2 Geometric distribution
3.6.1.3 Poisson distribution
3.6.2 Continuous probability distributions
3.6.2.1 Normal distribution
3.6.2.2 Log-Normal distribution
3.6.2.3 Pearson type–III Distribution (PT3)
3.6.2.4 Log Pearson Type III Distribution (LP3)
3.6.2.5 Gamma Distribution
3.6.2.6 Truncated Gamma distribution
3.6.2.7 Extreme value type I or Gumbel distribution
3.6.2.8 Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution
3.6.2.9 Log Pearson Type III Distribution
3.6.2.10 Log Normal distribution
3.7 Markov chain
3.7.1 To Fit the Markov Model and to Test the Goodness of Fit
3.7.2 Steps to be followed in the Estimation of Markov chain Model
3.7.3 Practical Situation where Markov Model can be Applied
3.8 Rainfall Characteristics
3.8.1 Onset of effective monsoon (OEM)
3.8.2 Withdrawal of effective monsoon (WEM)
3.8.3 Length of rainy season
3.8.4 Dry spells
3.8.5 Wet spells
3.9 Water Balance
3.9.1 Concept of water balance
3.9.2 Water balance methods
(a) Thornthwaite’s water balance method
(b) FAO model
(c) Versatile soil moisture budget
References
Exercises
4 Climate and Weather Forecasting
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Atmosphere
4.2.1 Atmospheric structure
4.3 Weather Elements
4.3.1 Solar Radiation
4.3.2 Air temperature
4.3.3 Atmospheric pressure
4.3.4 Wind
4.3.5 Humidity
4.3.6 Evaporation
4.3.7 Precipitation
4.3.8 Clouds
4.4 Hydrologic Cycle
4.5 Monsoons
4.5.1 South-West Monsoon
4.7.2 North-East Monsoon
4.6 Seasons
4.6.1 Cold Weather Period
4.6.2 Hot Weather Period
4.6.3 South-West Monsoon Period
4.6.4 North-East Monsoon Period
4.7 Weather Abnormalities
4.7.1 Floods
4.7.2 Droughts
4.7.3 Other Abnormalities
4.8 Weather Forecasting
4.9 Weather Forecasting Organisations
4.10 Weather Elements and Time Factor
4.11 Types of Weather Forecasting
4.11.1 Application of short range forecasting in agriculture
4.11.2 Application of extended forecast in agriculture
4.11.3 Application of long range forecast
4.12 Meteorological Satellite Based Weather Forecasting
4.13 Preparation of a Weather Outlook for the Farmers
4.14 Operational Forecasts
4.15 Methods of Forecasting
4.15.1 Synoptic Method
4.15.2 Statistical Methods
4.15.3 Numerical Weather prediction Method
4.16 Weather Modification
4.16.1 Artificial rain making
4.16.2 Reduction of wind velocity and its losses
References
Exercises
5 Arable Land Resources Management
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Land Capability Classification
5.3 Soil and Land Capability Suitability Surveys
5.4 Land Capability and Their Suitability Classification
5.5 Soil Erosion
5.5.1 Soil erosion by water
5.5.2 Soil erosion by wind
5.6 Controlling Soil Erosion
5.7 Arable Land Resources Management (ALRM)
5.7.1 Mechanical measures
5.7.1.1 Land levelling and grading
5.7.1.2 Contour bunding
5.7.1.3 Graded bunding
5.7.1.4 Terracing
5.7.1.5 Bench terracing
5.7.1.6 Grade stabilization structures
5.7.1.7 Bench terraces with stone walls
5.7.1.8. Safe disposal structure for runoff water
5.7.1.9 Detention reservoir
5.7.1.10 Agronomic practices
5.7.2 Conservation practices
References
Exercises
6 Nonarable Land Resources Management (NALRM)
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Gully
6.2.1 Gully Formation
6.2.2 Gully classification
6.3 Measures for non-arable land Resource Management (NALRM)
6.3.1 Contour trenching
6.3.2 Small boring pits
6.3.3 Bamboo geogrid
6.3.4 Gradonies
6.3.5 Box-cum pit method
6.3.6 PRT (Puerto Rico Terrace)
6.3.7 Gully Control Measures
6.3.7.1 Vegetative control measures
6.3.7.2 Temporary gully control structures
6.3.7.3 Semi permanent gully control measures
6.3.7.4 Permanent gully control structures
6.4 Gully and Ravine Reclamation Measures
6.4.1 Construction of graded contour and peripheral bunds
6.4.2 River/nalla bank protection
6.4.3 Gully plugging
6.4.4 Percolation embankment
6.4.5 Prevention of grazing and other biotic interferences
6.5 Reclamation of Gullies
References
Exercises
7 Water Resource Management
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Water Conservation Principle
7.3 Water Resources Management Techniques
7.4 Inter–terrace Management Techniques
7.4.1. General smoothening of lands
7.4.2. Zing–terracing
7.4.3. Compartmental bunding
7.4.4. Tied ridging
7.4.5. Scooping
7.4.6. Ridge and furrow system
7.4.7 Bed and furrow system
7.4.8 Bedding system
7.4.9 Corrugations
7.4.10 Ridge and furrow and bedding systems
7.5 Engineering Measures
7.5.1 Conservation terraces
7.5.2 Contour terracing and contour trenching
7.5.3 Stone Terracing
7.5.4 Contour bunding
7.6 Cultivation and Cropping System
7.6.1 Contour cultivation
7.6.2 Strip cropping
7.6.3 Crops and cropping systems
7.6.4 Live bunds
7.6.5 Tillage practices
7.6.6. Weeding and hoeing
7.7 Rain Water Harvesting
7.7.1 Classification of rain water harvesting techniques
7.7.1.1 Run off harvesting short term storage
7.7.1.2 Flood water Harvesting–Short term Storage
7.7.1.3 Floodwater-Harvesting Long–term Storage
7.8 Farm Ponds
7.8.1 Types of ponds
7.8.2 Components of a farm pond
7.8.3 Design of farm ponds
7.8.3.1 Site selection
7.8.3.2 Capacity of the pond
7.8.3.3 Rainfall-runoff relationships
7.8.3.4 Procedure for the design of water harvesting pond (WHP)
7.8.3.5 Design of embankment
7.8.3.6 Spillway for farm ponds
7.9 Reduction of Water Losses
7.9.1 Evaporation from water surface and soil surface
7.9.1.1 Reducing evaporation from water surface
7.9.1.2 Reducing evaporation from soil surface
7.9.2 Reducing seepage losses
7.9.3 Reducing transpiration
7.9.3.1 Factors affecting transpiration
7.9.3.2 Reduction of Transpiration losses
7.9.4 Reducing deep percolation
7.9.5 Reducing evapotranspiration
7.10 Frequency Analysis for Rainwater Management
7.11 Drought Analysis for Rainwater Management
References
Exercises
8 Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Some Important Process and Definition
8.3 Measurement of Evapotranspiration
8.3.1 Lysimeter experiments
8.3.2. Field experimental plots
8.3.3. Soil moisture depletion method
8.3.4. Water balance method
8.3.5. Estimation of evapotranspiration from climatological data
8.3.5.1 Methods using single weather parameter
8.3.5.2 Methods using two weather parameters as input
8.3.5.3 Combination method
8.4 Irrigation Scheduling
8.4.1 How Much to Apply
8.4.2 When to Irrigate (Irrigation Frequency)
8.4.3 Irrigation Period
8.5 Irrigation Scheduling Techniques
8.5.1 Irrigation scheduling based on soil moisture Content
8.5.2 Irrigation scheduling based on Plant Characters
8.5.3 Irrigation scheduling based on Weather parameters
References
Exercises
9 Efficient Utilization of Rain Water
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Water Use Efficiency
9.3 Need for Increasing Water Use Efficiency
9.4 Principles of Improving Water Use Efficiency
9.5 Measures for Improving Water use Efficiency
9.5.1 Climatic conditions
9.5.2 Agronomic measures
9.5.3 Crop geometry and crop management
9.5.4. Reduction of water losses
9.5.4.1 Measure to control transpiration
9.5.4.2 Reduction of deep percolation losses
9.5.4.3 Mulching
9.5.4.4 Use of shelterbelts
9.6 Recycling of Harvested Water
9.6.1 Response of life saving irrigation
9.6.2 Response of method of irrigation
9.7 Irrigation Application Methods
9.7.1 Furrow irrigation
9.7.2 Sprinkler Irrigation
9.7.3 Drip Irrigation
References
Exercises
10 Crop Planning
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Crop Planning
10.2.1 Rainfall and its distribution
10.2.2 Length of growing season
10.2.3 Water demands of crop/ cropping system
10.2.4 Matching the length of growing season and duration
10.3 Cropping Systems
10.4 Aberrant Situation
10.5 Contingent Crop Planning
10.5.1 Crop panning under normal season
10.5.2 Crop panning under aberrant weather conditions
10.5.2.1 Early season stress
10.5.2.2 Mid-season stress
10.5.2.3 Terminal stress
10.5.2.4 Delayed onset of monsoon
10.5.2.5 Early withdrawal of monsoon
10.5.2.6 Extended monsoon
10.6 Crop Diversification for Aberrant Weather
10.7 Contingent Crop Planning for rabi with Weather Aberrations
10.8 Crop Planning for Alternate Land Use
(i) Silvi-pasture (Tree+Pasture)
(ii) Agri-silviculture (Tree + crops)
(iii) Agro-horticulture (Fruit trees + crops)
(iv) Alley cropping (Hedges + crops)
(v) Ley farming
References
Exercises
11 Tillage and Sowing Implements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Seedbed Preparation for Upland Crops
11.3 Classification of Tillage Operation
11.4 Tillage Requirements under Different Agro-Climatic Conditions
11.5 Traditional Tillage Implements
11.6 Improved Tillage Implements
11.6.1 Animal drawn implements
11.6.2 Tractor drawn implements
11.7 Selection of Power and Machinery
11.8 Measures to Improve Productivity of Drylands
11.9 Need for Improved Implements
11.9.1 Timeliness
11.9.1.1 Timely weed control
11.9.1.2 Timely fertilizer application
11.9.2 Precision
11.9.2.1 Seeding
11.9.2.2 Placement of fertilizer
11.10 Forces Acting on a Tillage Tool or Implement
11.11 Mechanics of Tillage
11.12 The Field Capacity of Implement
11.12.1 Factors affecting field capacity
11.12.2 Time losses in turning
11.12.3 Time losses due to machine reliability
11.13 Analysis of External Forces
11.14 Factors Affecting Design of Tillage Tool
11.15 Tractor Hitches
11.16 Mechanics of Hitching
11.17 Disc Ploughs and Harrows
11.18 Sowing and Planting Implements
11.18.1 Traditional Sowing Methods
11.18.2 Function of seed–drills and Planters
11.18.3 Seedbeds for seeding and Planting
11.18.4 Seed Metering Devices
11.18.5 Furrow openers
11.18.6 Factors Affecting Seed Germination and Emergence
11.18.7 Seed rate adjustment
11.19 Improved Animal Drawn Mustard Drill (HAU)
References
Exercises
12 Weeding Implements
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Weeding Tools
12.2.1 Manual weeding Tools
12.2.2 Animal Drawn Multipurpose Hoe
12.2.3 Tractor Mounted Earthing cum Interculture Equipment
12.2.4 Power operated weeding tools
12.3 Requirements and Adjustment of Weeding and Intercultural Tools
12.4 Performance of Weeding and Inter-cultivation Tools
12.5 Other Techniques for Weeding
12.5.1 Flame Weed Control
12.5.2 Chemical Weed Control
12.6 Rotavator
References
Exercises
13 Plant Protection Equipments
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types of Equipment and Field Crop Sprayers
13.2.1 Types of Equipment
13.2.2 Types of field crop sprayers
13.3 Atomizing Devices
13.3.1 Hydraulic Nozzles
13.3.2 Flow Rates and Spray Angles
13.4 Factors Affecting Droplet Size
13.5 Distributions and Determination of Droplet Size
13.5.1 Distribution of droplet size
13.5.2 Determination of droplet size distribution
13.6 Classification of Spraying Techniques
13.7 Types of Agitation
13.7.1 Mechanical Agitation
13.7.2 Hydraulic Agitation
13.8 Hydraulic Sprayers
13.9 Hand Operated Sprayers
13.10 Types of duster
References
Exercises
14 Energy Utilization Pattern
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Energy Utilization from Different Sources
14.3 Energy Use Patterns
14.3.1 Energy Use Pattern in Domestic
14.3.2 Energy Use Pattern in Agriculture
14.4 Labour Input for Different Operations
14.5 Energy Input Output under Different Cropping Systems
14.6 Energy Inputs for the Production, Formulation, Packaging, and Transport of Various Pesticides
14.7 Estimation of energy in Farm Machinery and Buildings
14.7.1 Estimation of Energy Embodied in the Farm Machinery
14.7.2 Farm Service Buildings
14.8 Energy Conservation Measures in Dryland Areas
References
Exercises
15 Sources of Energy
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Classification of Energy Sources
15.3 Environmental Consequences
15.4 Different Options of Energy Resources
15.4.1 Nuclear Fission
15.4.2 Fusion power
15.4.3 Direct Conversion
15.4.4 Wind Power
15.4.5 Hydro Power
15.4.6 Biomass
15.5 Energy Substitution
References
Exercises
16 Harvesting and Threshing Implements
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Effect of Harvesting Methods on Quality of Product
16.3 Time of Harvesting
16.4 Principle of Cutting
16.5 Method of Harvesting
16.5.1 Traditional method of harvesting
16.5.2 Mechanical harvesting equipment
16.6 Different type of harvesting tools/equipment, suitability for crops and their limitations
16.7 Factors Affecting Performance of Harvesting Machines
16.8 Suitability of Harvesting Methods for Different Crops
16.8.1 Cereal crops
16.8.2 Pulse crops
16.8.3 Oilseed crops
16.9 Mechanical Harvesting Machines
16.9.1 Flail Mowers
16.9.2 Mower
16.9.2.1 Types of mower cutter bar and Functional parameters
16.9.2.2 Conventional Mower Cutter bar
16.9.2.3 Knife drive system
16.9.2.4 Knife clearances and cutting velocities
16.9.2.5 Cutter bar Alignment
16.9.3 Reaper
16.9.4 Reaper-cum-binder
16.9.5 Combine
16.9.5.1 Some important terms
16.9.5.2 Size relations for functional components
16.9.5.3 Different operations of combine
16.9.5.4 Straw Walker performance
16.9.5.5 Walker length
16.9.5.6 The cleaning shoe
16.9.5.7 Shoe separation principles
16.9.5.8 Combine performance
16.9.5.9 Power requirements in combine
16.10 Other Mechanical Harvesting Machines
16.10.1 Corn Harvesting Machines
16.10.1.1 Components of corn picker
16.10.1.2 Adjustment in corn picker
16.10.2 Cotton harvesting machines
16.10.3 Sugar beet harvesters
16.10.4 Peanut harvesters
16.10.5 Potato harvesters
16.10.6 Tomato harvesters
16.10.7 Green peas harvester
16.10.8 Fruit harvester
16.10.9 Sugarcane Harvesters
16.10.10 Chaff cutter and forage harvesters
16.11 Problems in Harvesting
16.12 Threshing and Winnowing
16.12.1 Thresher
16.12.1.1 Types of threshing mechanisms
16.12.1.2 Working principle of a Thresher
16.12.1.3 Different types of threshers and their suitability for crops
16.12.1.4 Performance of Combine Threshing Cylinder
16.13 Other Machines
16.13.1 Maize sheller
16.13.2 Sugarcane crusher
16.13.3 Jute crusher
16.13.4 Groundnut decorticator
16.13.5 Feed grinder
References
Exercises
17 Communication Facilities, Agribusiness and Resource Centre
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Status and Perspective of Communication and IT in Agriculture
17.3 Issues and Key Factors for Communication and IT in Agriculture
17.4 Key to Convince Farmers of the Potential Decision Support System (DSS)
17.4.1 Efficient data collection
17.4.2 Case-based decision support
17.4.3 Easy user interface
17.4.4 Distributed system
17.5 Communication and IT for Agribusiness
17.5.1 Meaning and types of E-agribusiness
17.5.2 Scope and Advantages of E-Agribusiness
17.5.3 E-agribusiness: global scenario
17.5.4 E-agribusiness: Indian perspective
17.5.5 E-agribusiness and WTO
17.5.6 E-agribusiness : constraints and remedial measures
17.6 Use of Electronic Mass Media in India for Agriculture Extension
17.6.1 Role of information technology in Indian scenario
17.6.2 Increasing the use of information technology (IT)
17.6.3 Use of IT in agriculture marketing
17.6.4 Private information shops/kiosks
17.6.5 Role of Portal in Various Agricultural Activities
17.6.6 Present constraints in use of electronic mass media
17.7 Resource Centre
17.8 Opportunities of Communication
References
Exercises
18 Value Addition of Agricultural Products
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Concept
18.3 Scope in India
18.4 Strategies for Value Addition
18.5 Forms of Processing
18.6 Value Addition of Different Agricultural Commodities
18.7 Constraints and Actions for Value Addition in Food Sector in India
18.8 Recent Trends for Value Addition In Food Sector
18.9 Strategies for Growth and Development of Food Sector in India
References
Exercises
19 Storage of Grain
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Factors Affecting Storage
19.3 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air
19.4 Moisture Content of Agricultural Products
19.5 Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
19.6 Sources and Insect Infestation
19.7 Drying
19.8 Drying Principles
19.9 Thermal efficiency (Heat Utilization Factor)
19.10 Heat and Mass Transfer
19.11 Artificial Drying with Unheated Air
19.12 Kind of Storage
19.13 Principles of Storage
19.14 Classfication and Design of Grain Storage Bins
19.15 Storage of Seeds
19.15.1 Providing safe storage conditions
19.15.2 Kinds of storage
19.15.3 Storage management
19.15.4 Stacking management
19.16 Storage of Fodder
19.16.1 Hay
19.16.2 Silage
19.16.3 Design of silo
19.17 Design of Elevator
19.17.1 Trough belt
19.17.2 Screw conveyor
19.17.3 Bucket Elevator
References
Exercises
20 Food and Livelihood Security of Dryland Farmers
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Livelihood Security in India
20.3 Livelihood security – A Review
20.4 Context and Definition of Food Security
20.5 Food and Nutritional Security
20.6 Factors Affecting Food Security in Drylands
20.6.1 Income poverty
20.6.2 National food supply
20.6.3 Drought and household food security
20.6.4 Violent conflicts
20.6.5 Education and status of women
20.7 Strategies to Enhance Livelihood Security
20.7.1 Livelihood promotion (Development-oriented Programming)
20.7.2 Livelihood Protection (Rehabilitation/ mitigation–oriented Programming)
20.7.3 Livelihood provisioning (Relief-oriented Programming)
20.8 Measures and Issues
20.9 The Vision and the Strategy
20.9.1 Maintenance of natural resources
20.9.2. Resource conservation technologies
20.9.3. Post-production management and value addition
20.9.4. Precision farming
20.9.5. Gender equity issues
20.9.6. Globalization of agriculture
20.9.7 Transfer of technology through new extension approaches
20.9.8 Enhancing nutritional quality
20.9.9. Food and nutrition programmes
20.9.10. Growth on a sustainable basis
20.9.11. Accessibility to balanced food
20.10 Conclusion
References
Exercises
21. Alternate Landuse Planning
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Need for Alternate Landuse
21.3 Classification of Alternate Landuse Systems
21.4 Alternatice Landuse Pertaining to Degraded Lands
21.4.1 Agrisilviculture (trees + crops)
21.4.2 Silvipasture (trees + grass)
21.4.3 Silvi pastural system (Trees + forages)
21.4.4 Alley cropping (Tree or shrub + crops)
21.4.5 Ley farming
21.4.6 Selection of tree species for agri-silvi systems
21.5 Alternate Landuse Pertainin to Agri-horti System/silvi-horti System
21.6 Alternate Landuse Pertaining to Meditional Industrial and Aromatic Plants
21.6.1 Meditional plants
21.6.2 Industrial biomass production
21.6.3 Aromatic plants
21.7 Techniques of Alternate Landuse Planning
21.7.1 Agroecological approach
21.7.2 FAO approach
21.7.3 Actual and potential productivity
21.8 Sustainable Landuse Planning
21.9 Constraints in cultivation and Adoption of Alternate Landuse
21.10 Land Evaluation for Development of Alternate Landuse Plans
References
Exercises
22 Watershed Management and Evaluations
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Watershed Management
22.3 Objectives of the Integrated Watershed Management
22.4 Participatory Watershed Management
22.5 Watershed Characteristics and Factors Affecting Watershed behaviour
22.6 Watershed Planning
22.7 Controlling Sedimentation of Reservoirs
22.8 Watershed Work Plans
22.9 Evaluation Procedure
22.10 Indicators of Watershed Development
22.10.1 Bio-Physical indicators
22.10.2 Economic indicators
22.10.3 Other economic indicators
22.10.4 Technical and ecological indicators
22.10.5 Other technical indicators
22.10.6 Water Resources development indicators
22.10.7 Peoples’ participation index
22.10.8 Satellite imagery
22.10.9 Other social and behavioural indicators
22.10.10 Criteria and indicators for group performance of SHGs, UGS and
WDCs
References
Exercises
APPENDICES
A Specifications of some commonly available sprinkler equipment
B Performance of rotary sprinklers
C Definition of standards and equivalents
D Symbols, dimensions and derived units of standard quantity
E Conversion factors for common and not-so-common units
F Standard relationships for conversion ID units
G Mathematical Symbols and the Greek Alphabet
H Mathematical Formula
I Values of Trignometric Functions
Subject Index
