Preface
Section I. INTRODUCTION
1. Nematodes – An Overview
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Importance of nematodes in agriculture
1.3. Historical
1.4. Nematodes as biological models - Caenorhabditis elegans
1.5. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN)
1.5.1. Steinernema carpocapsae
1.5.2. Steinernema feltiae
1.5.3. Steinernema glasseri
1.5.4. Steinernema riobrave
1.5.5. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora
1.5.6. Heterorhabditis megidis
1.5.7. Heterorhabditis indica
1.5.8. Heterorhabditis marelatus
1.6. Reasons for the slow progress of science of nematology
1.7. Factors responsible for the development of nematology as a separate discipline
1.8. Training of nematologists
1.9. Professional societies and publications
1.10. Early books on plant nematology
Section II. NEMATOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES
2. Microscopy
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Compound microscope
2.2.1. Components
2.2.2. Use
2.2.3. Alignment and care
2.3. Dissecting microscope
2.3.1. Use
2.4. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
2.4.1. Advantages
2.4.2. Use
2.5. Drawing and measuring nematodes
2.5.1. Direct measurement
2.5.2. Drawing equipment
2.5.3. Procedure
2.5.4. Drawing nematodes for measurements
3. Sampling nematode populations
3.1. Sampling procedures
3.1.1. Detection and survey
3.1.2. Diagnosis or detection
3.1.3. Advisory
3.1.4. Research
3.2. Collection of samples
3.2.1. Sampling equipment
3.2.2. Timing of sample
3.2.3. Sample size
3.2.4. Sampling patterns
3.3. Care and conditioning of soil and plant tissue samples
3.3.1. Handling of samples during collection and transit
3.3.2. Storage
4. Extraction of nematodes from soil
4.1. Principles
4.1.1. Weight and rate of settling
4.1.2. Size and shape
4.1.3. Mobility
4.2. Free-living nematodes
4.2.1. Cotton wool filter technique
4.2.2. Decanting and sieving technique
4.2.3. Simple extraction method for large nematodes like Xiphinema and Longidorus
4.2.4. Two-flask technique
4.2.5. Elutriation techniques
4.2.6. Centrifugal flotation technique
4.2.7. Estimating nematodes in aqueous suspensions
4.3. Extraction of cyst nematodes
4.3.1. A simple extraction method
4.3.2. Acetone or acetone: CCI4 method
4.3.3. Paper strip method
4.3.4. Kirchner's funnel method
4.3.5. Modified Fenwick can method
4.3.6. DPI cyst separation technique
4.3.7. Oostenbrink's flotation apparatus
4.3.8. Reinmuth's centrifuging method
4.3.9. Separation of cysts from admixtures
4.3.10. Estimation of the egg content of cysts
5. Extraction of nematodes from plant material
5.1. Dissecting plant material in water
5.2. Modified Baermann funnel technique
5.3. Cotton wool filter technique
5.4. Mechanical maceration technique
5.5. Root incubation technique
5.5.1. Advantages
5.6. Mistifier technique
5.6.1. Advantages
5.6.2. Disadvantages
6. Extraction of eggs
6.1. From roots
6.1.1. With a few exposed eggs
6.1.2. With many exposed eggs
6.2. From Soil
6.2.1. Root-knot nematode eggs
6.2.2. Free living nematode eggs
7. Handling nematodes
7.1. Picking and transferring individual nematodes
7.2. Anaesthetization
7.3. Killing and fixing
7.3.1. Fixatives
7.4. Preparation of nematode mounts
7.4.1. Temporary mounts
7.4.2. Semi-permanent mounts
7.4.3. Permanent mounts
7.5. Fixation and preservation of plant material
7.6. Preparation of posterior cuticular pattern of root-knot nematodes
7.7. Preparation of vulval cone of cyst nematodes
7.8. Preparation of enface view of nematodes
8. Staining
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Roots
8.2.1. Staining by Fleming's reagent
8.2.2. Staining with picric acid and aniline blue for hardwood roots
8.2.3. Staining with bromphenol or bromthymol blue
8.2.4. Staining by aceto-osmium method
8.2.5. Staining by Lugol's solution
8.2.6. NaOCl - acid fuchsine - glycerin method
8.2.7. Differential staining of endoparasitic nematodes
8.3. Shoots
8.3.1. Staining with cotton blue or acid fuchsine in lacto-phenol
8.3.2. Staining by Fleming's reagent
8.3.3. Permanent mounts of nematodes within tissues stained with cotton blue or acid fuchsine
8.4. Staining for distinguishing live from dead nematodes
8.4.1. Staining by new blue R
8.4.2. Staining by chrysoidin
8.4.3. Staining by phloxine
8.4.4. Staining by eosin – Y
8.4.5. Staining by acridin orange
8.5. Specialized staining
8.5.1. Acetic orcein
8.5.2. Gold chloride
8.5.3. Silver nitrate
8.5.4. Vital staining
9. Microtome sectioning
9.1. Killing and fixation
9.2. Dehydration
9.2.1. Dehydration by non-solvents of paraffin
9.2.2. Dehydration in solvents of paraffin
9.3. Infiltration and embedding
9.4. Microtome sectioning
9.5. Staining
9.5.1. Staining of microtome sections
10. Culturing of nematodes
10.1. Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi
10.1.1. Procedure
10.2. Ditylenchus destructor
10.2.1. On potato tubers
10.2.2. On potato plugs
10.3. Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida
10.3.1. Procedure
10.4. Meloidogyne spp. on excised tomato roots
10.4.1. Surface sterilization of tomato seed
10.4.2. Transferring of the seed
10.4.3. Planting of the root tips in a petri dish filled with the nutrient solution
10.4.4. Inoculation of excised tomato roots with the juveniles
10.4.5. Inoculation of excised tomato roots with the eggs
10.5. Radopholus similis and Pratylenchus spp. on carrot discs
10.5.1. Preparation of carrot discs
10.5.2. Selection and surface sterilization of nematodes
10.5.3. Inoculation of the carrot discs with nematodes
10.6. Entomopathogenic nematodes
10.6.1. In vivo production
10.6.2. In vitro production
11. Miscellaneous techniques
11.1. Proof of pathogenicity
11.2. Methods of estimating yield losses
11.3. Screening of germplasm
11.3.1. Screening of banana germplasm against migratory endoparasitic nematodes (Pratylenchus coffeae and Radopholus similis) under greenhouse conditions
Section III. MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY
12. Morphology
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Outer body tube
12.2.1. Exoskeleton or cuticle
12.2.2. Hypodermis
12.2.3. Muscle layer
12.3. Inner body tube
12.3.1. Stomodeum
12.3.2. Intestine
12.3.3. Proctodeum
12.3.4. Glands
12.3.5. Function
12.4. Body cavity
12.4.1. Nervous system
12.4.2. Excretory system
12.4.3. Reproductive system
12.4.4. Chromosome numbers
13. Taxonomy
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Taxonomy of nematodes
13.2.1. Types of specimens
13.3. Types of taxonomy
13.3.1. Morphological taxonomy
13.3.2. Molecular/ biochemical taxonomy
13.3.3. Cytogenetic taxonomy
13.4. Morphological taxonomy
13.4.1. Class Secernentea and Class Adenophorea
13.4.2. Order Tylenchida and Order Dorylaimida
13.4.3. Sub-order Tylenchina and Sub-order Aphelenchina
13.5. Sub-Order: Tylenchina
13.5.1. Superfamily: Tylenchoidea
13.5.2. Superfamily: Heteroderoidea
13.5.3. Superfamily: Neotylencoidea
13.5.4. Superfamily: Atylenchoidea
13.5.5. Superfamily: Criconematoidea
13.6. Sub-order Aphelenchina
13.6.1. Superfamily: Aphelenchoidea
13.7. Sub-order: Dorylaimina
13.7.1. Superfamily: Dorylaimoidea
13.7.2. Superfamily:Trichodoroidea
13.8. Molecular/biochemical taxonomy
13.9. Monographic references
13.9.1. Anguina
13.9.2. Aphelenchoides
13.9.3. Belonolaimus
13.9.4. Bursaphelenchus
13.9.5. Coloosia
13.9.6. Criconema and Neocriconema
13.9.7. Criconemellaand Discocriconemella
13.9.8. Ditylenchus
13.9.9. Dolichodorus
13.9.10. Helicotylenchus
13.9.11. Hemicriconemoides
13.9.12. Hemicycliophora
13.9.13. Heterodera and Globodera
13.9.14. Hirschmanniella
13.9.15. Hoplolaimus
13.9.16. Longidorus and Paralongidorus
13.9.17. Macroposthonia (Criconemoides)
13.9.18. Meloidogyne
13.9.19. Morulaimus
13.9.20. Nacobbus
13.9.21. Paratylenchus
13.9.22. Peltamingratus
13.9.23. Pratylenchoides
13.9.24. Pratylenchus
13.9.25. Radopholus and Radopholoides
13.9.26. Rotylenchulus
13.9.27. Rotylenchus
13.9.28. Scutellonema
13.9.29. Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus
13.9.30. Tylenchorhynchus and Tetylenchus
13.9.31. Tylenchulus
13.9.32. Xiphinema
Section IV. BIOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
14. Biology
14.1. Introduction
14.2. The egg
14.3. Embryology
14.4. Hatching
14.5. Molting
14.5.1. The stimulus
14.5.2. The receptor
14.5.3. Molting
14.6. Significance of life histories
15. Physiology
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Chemical composition
15.3. Metabolism
15.3.1. Respiration
15.3.2. Temperature
15.3.3. Moisture
15.4. Dormancy and longevity
15.5. Growth and sex determination
15.6. Nutrition and laboratory culturing
16. Ecology
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Vertical distribution
16.3. Survival
16.4. Population dynamics
16.5. Soil Environment
16.5.1. Temperature
16.5.2. Moisture
16.5.3. Soil texture
16.5.4. Soil solutions
16.6. Climate
16.7. Plant environment
16.7.1. The rhizosphere
Section V. HOST-PARASITE INTERACTIONS
17. Feeding
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Ecological classification of plant parasitic nematodes
17.2.1. Ectoparasitic nematodes
17.2.2. Endoparasitic nematodes
17.2.3. Semi-Endoparastic nematodes
17.3. Methods of feeding
17.3.1. Nematodes that bring about destructive cellular changes
17.3.2. Nematodes that bring about adaptive cellular changes in the host
18. Symptoms
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Symptoms produced by below-ground feeders
18.2.1. Stunting
18.2.2. Yellowing
18.2.3. Wilting
18.2.4. Root galls
18.2.5. Reduced root system
18.2.6. Root lesions
18.2.7. Rots of fleshy parts
18.2.8. Excessive root branching
18.3. Symptoms produced by above-ground feeders
18.3.1. Dead or devitalized buds
18.3.2. Crinkled and distorted stems and foliage
18.3.3. Seed galls
18.3.4. Necrosis and discoloration
18.3.5. Leaf lesions
18.3.6. Leaf galls
19. Physiologic races
19.1. Introduction
19.2. Physiological races
19.2.1. Ditylenchus dipsaci
19.2.2. Globodera rostochiensis
19.2.3. Globodera pallida
19.2.4. Heterodera avenae
19.2.5. Heterodera glycines
19.2.6. Radopholus similis
19.2.7. Belonolaimus longicaudatus
19.2.8. Rotylenchulus reniformis
19.2.9. Meloidogyne incognita
19.2.10. Meloidogyne arenaria
19.2.11. Tylenchulus semipenetrans
20. Histopathology
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Histopathology
20.2.1. Meloidogyne
20.2.2. Heterodera
20.2.3. Diylecnhus
20.2.4. Aphelenchoides
20.2.5. Anguina
20.2.6. Radopholus
20.2.7. Rotylenchulus
20.2.8. Tylenchulus
20.2.9. Nacobbus
20.2.10. Meloidodera
20.2.11. Xiphinema
Section VI.INTERACTION WITH OTHER MICRO-ORGANISMS
21. Interaction with fungi
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Wilt disease interactions
21.2.1. Root-knot and wilt disease interactions
21.2.2. Cyst nematode and wilt disease interactions
21.2.3. Burrowing nematode and wilt disease interactions
21.2.4. Sting nematode and wilt disease interactions
21.2.5. Lance nematode and wilt disease interactions
21.3. Root Rot Disease Interactions
21.3.1. Lesion nematodes and root rot disease interactions
21.3.2. Sting nematode and root rot disease interactions
21.3.3. Citrus nematode and root rot disease interactions
21.3.4. Root-knot nematodes and root rot disease interactions
21.3.5. Cyst nematode and root rot disease interactions
21.4. Seedling disease interactions
21.4.1. Root-knot nematodes and seedling disease interactions
21.4.2. Citrus nematode and seedling disease interactions
21.4.3. Reniform/lance nematodes and seedling disease interactions
21.5. Management of nematode - fungal disease complexes
21.5.1. Breeding nematode - fungal resistant varieties
21.5.2. Soil fumigation with chemicals having both nematicidal and fungicidal value
21.6. Nematodes and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi interactions
22. Interaction with bacteria
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Wilt disease interactions
22.2.1. Root-knot nematodes and wilt disease interactions
22.2.2. Stem nematode and wilt disease interactions
22.3. Root disease interactions
22.3.1. Root-knot nematodes and root disease interactions
22.3.2. Lesion nematode and root disease interactions
22.4. Foliage disease interactions
22.5. Nematode rhizobia interactions
23. Interaction with viruses
23.1. Introduction
23.2. NEPO viruses
23.3. NETU or TOBRA viruses
23.4. Relationship between viruses and vector nematodes
23.4.1. Transmission
23.4.2. Acquisition and inoculation
23.4.3. Persistence
23.5. Mechanism of transmission
23.6. Ecology and management
23.6.1. Use of virus-free planting material
23.6.2. Weed management
23.6.3. Crop rotation
23.6.4. Resistant varieties
23.6.5. Chemical control
Section VII. MANAGEMENT METHODS
24. Regulatory methods
24.1. Plant quarantines
24.1.1. Quarantine restrictions in india
24.1.2. Quarantine restrictions in USA
24.1.3. Prevention of spread
24.1.4. Prevention of multiplication
24.2. Seed certification
25. Physical methods
25.1. Introduction
25.2. Heat
25.2.1. Heat treatment of soil
25.2.2. Hot water treatment of planting material
25.3. Soil solarization
25.3.1. Soil solarization to manage root-knot nematodes
25.4. Irradiation
25.5. Osmotic pressure
25.6. Washing process
25.7. Seed cleaning
26. Cultural methods
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Crop rotation
26.3. Trap cropping
26.4. Fallowing
26.5. Selection of healthy propagating material
26.6. Removal or destruction of infected plants
26.7. Influence of manuring
26.8. Flooding
26.9. Cover/green manure cropping
26.10. Antagonistic plants
26.10.1. Mustard
26.10.2. Pangola grass
26.10.3. Marigold
26.10.4. Asparagus
26.10.5. Crotalaria
26.10.6. Sesame
26.10.7. Bitter cucumber
26.10.8. Carthamus tinctorius
26.10.9. Neem
26.11. Time of planting
26.12. Biofumigation
27. Chemical methods
27.1. Introduction
27.2. Historical
27.3. Groups of nematicides
27.3.1. Halogenated hydrocarbons
27.3.2. Organophosphates
27.3.3. Dithiocarbomates
27.3.4. Advantages of organophosphates and dithiocarbamates
27.3.5. Avermectins
27.4. Placement of nematicides
27.4.1. Gaseous diffusion
27.4.2. Dispersion in water
27.4.3. Mechanical mixing
27.5. Types of treatment
27.5.1. Pre-plant treatment
27.5.2. Treatment at planting time
27.5.3. Post-plant treatment
27.5.4. Bare root dip treatment
27.5.5. Seed treatment
27.5.6. Foliar treatment
27.6. Types of application
27.6.1. Over all (Broadcast) application
27.6.2. Row application
27.6.3. Spot application
27.6.4. Strip application
27.6.5. Site application
27.7. Evaluation of results
27.8. Ways by which the cost of nematicides can be reduced
27.9. Mode of action
27.9.1. Organic halides
27.9.2. Organophosphates and carbamates
27.9.3. Avermectins
28. Biological methods
28.1. Introduction
28.2. Organic amendments
28.3. Predators
28.3.1. Predacious nematodes
28.3.2. Predacious fungi
28.3.3. Tardigrades
28.3.4. Turbellarians
28.3.5. Collembola
28.3.6. Mites
28.3.7. Enchytraeids
28.3.8. Predacious protozoa
28.4. Parasites
28.4.1. Parasitic fungi
28.4.2. Bacteria
28.4.3. Viruses
28.4.4. Parasitic protozoa
28.4.5. Rickettsias
28.5. Arbascular mycorrhizal fungi
28.5.1. Ectomycorrhizae
28.5.2. Endomycorrhizae
28.5.3. Mode of action
29. Host resistance
29.1. Introduction
29.2. Development of nematode resistant varieties
29.3. Nature of resistance
29.4. Problems associated with resistance
29.5. Biotechnological approaches for nematode resistance
29.6. Conclusion
30. Integrated management
30.1. Introduction
30.2. Integrated nematode management
30.2.1. Exclusion
30.2.2. Population reduction
30.2.3. Tolerance
30.3. Future strategies
30.4. Case descriptions
30.4.1. Potato
30.4.2. Tomato
30.4.3. Brinjal
30.4.4. Okra
30.4.5. Sweet potato
30.4.6. Carrot
30.4.7. Tobacco
30.4.8. Strawberry
Section VIII. NEMATODE PESTS OF CROP PLANTS
31. Horticultural crops
31.1. CitrusCitrus spp.
31.1.1. Citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans
31.1.2. Lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae
31.1.3. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp.
31.2. Banana,Musa spp.
31.2.1. Burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis
31.2.2. Lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae
31.2.3. Spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus multicinctus
31.2.4. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp.
31.3. Papaya, Carica papaya
31.3.1. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp.
31.4. Grapevine,Vitis vinifera
31.4.1. Root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita
31.4.2. Reniform nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis
31.4.3. Dagger nematode, Xiphinema spp.
31.5. Guava, Psidium guajava
31.5.1. Root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne enterolobii
31.6. Pomegranate, Punica granatum
31.6.1. Root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita
31.7. Potato,Solanum tuberosum
31.7.1. Cyst nematodes, Globodera rostochiensis,G. pallida
31.7.2. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp.
31.8. Tuberose, Polianthes tuberosa
31.8.1. Foliar nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyi
31.9. Polyhouse grown vegetable and flower crops
31.9.1. Vegetable crops
31.9.2. Flower crops
31.9.3. Nematode problems
31.9.4. Management
32. Plantation and spice crops
32.1. Coffee,Coffea spp.
32.1.1. Lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae
32.1.2. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne exigua, M. coffeicola
32.2. Tea,Camellia sinensis
32.2.1. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp.
32.3. Coconut, Cocos nucifera
32.3.1. Burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis
32.4. Black Pepper, Piper nigrum
32.4.1. Burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis
32.4.2. Root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp.
33. Commercial crops
33.1. Tobacco,Nicotiana tabacum
33.1.1. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita; M. javanica
33.2. Cotton,Gossypium spp.
33.2.1. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita
33.2.2. Reniform nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis
33.3. Castor,Ricinus communis
33.3.1. Reniform nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis
34. Field crops
34.1. Wheat,Triticum spp.
34.1.1. Cereal cyst nematode, Heterodera avenae
34.1.2. Seed gall nematode, Anguina tritici
34.2. Rice,Oryza sativa
34.2.1. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne graminicola
34.2.2. White tip nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyi
34.2.3. Rice stem nematode, Ditylenchus angustus
34.3. Pigeon Pea,Cajanus cajan
34.3.1. Cyst nematode, Heterodera cajani
34.4. Groundnut, Arachis hypogaea
34.4.1. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. javanica
34.4.2. Stunt nematode, Tylenchorhynchus brevilineatus
References
Annexures
Annexure I. Quotable Quotes
Annexure II. Common Names of Nematodes
Annexure III. Nematological Journals
Annexure IV. Professional Societies for Nematologists
Annexure V. Glossary
Subject Index
