1. THE ROOTS OF TAXONOMY

The Need For Classification

The Aims of Taxonomy

Definition and use of Terms

The Development of Classification Prior to Darwin:

1.Classification based on Habit

2. The Sexual System

3. Systems based on Form Relationships

Summary of Pre-Darwinian Classification

2. SYSTEMATICS AFTER DARWIN: ITS MODERN BASIS

The Effects of Evolutionary Theory on Systematics

Monographic and Floristic Developments

Definition and Use of Terms:

1. Primitive or Unspecialised, versus Advanced or Specialised

2. Homology and Analogy

3. Parallelism and Convergence

4. Horizontal and Vertical Classification

5. Phylogeny, Phylogenetic and Phyletic. Ontogeny

6. Monophyly and Polyphyly

7. Character Weighting

8. Grades and Clades

The data of Post-Darwinian Systematics

Palaeobotanical Evidence

Classification in Post-Drawinian Times

1. Phylogenetic systems

2. Natural systems

Post-darwinian Summary and conclusions

3 THE UNITS OF CLASSIFICATION

The Taxonomic Hierarchy

Principles used in Assessing Relationships, Delimitation of Taxa and Attribution of Rank

1. Criteria

2. Guides

3. Practical Considerations

Usage of the Categories

1. species

2. Genus

3. Gamily

4. THE CONCEPT OF CHARACTERS

Introduction

Definition of characters

1. Analytic and Synthetic Characters

2. Qualitative and quantitative Characters

3. “Good” and “Bad” Characters

Function and Taxonomic Characters

Characters and The Definition of Groups

Evolutionary Interpresetation of comparative Data

1. convergence

2. Necessary Correlates

3. Genetics, Cytology and the Likelihood of Change

Character Correlation and Discrimination: Numerical Taxonomy

1. Construction of Taxonomic Groups

2. Discrimination

3. Potential Value

5. TAXONOMIC EVIDENCE I

Morphology, Anatomy, Palynology, Embryology

Introduction

Morphology and Anatomy

1. Exomorphic and Endomorphic Characters

2. Neglected Morphological Characters

3. Anatomical Characters

Palynology and Embryology

1. Pollen Morphology and Taxonomy

2. Comparative Embryology

6. TAXONOMIC EVIDENCE II

Cytology

Introduction

Chromosome Number

Chromosome Morphology

1. Chromosome size

2. Chromosome Morphology and Relative Size

3. Heterochromatin

4. Chromosome Behaviour at Meiosis

The Taxonomic Value of Cytological Data

1. General

2. Family Level and Above

3. Generic Level

4. Specific Level

Polyploidy and Taxonomy

1. Frequency of Polyploidy

2. Types of Polyploidy

3. Autopolyploidy

4. Cryptic Polyploidy

5. Segmental Allopolyploidy

6. Allopolyploidy

7. Other situations

8. Polyploid Pillar Complexes

Cytogeography

7 TAXONOMIC EVIDENCE III

Phytochemistry

Introduction

Historical

Chemical Constituents as Comparative Data and Their Evolutionary Imterpretation

1. Distribution and Description of Directly Visible Chemical Substances

2. Chemical Test Characters: Plant Products

3. Proteins

Parasitism

Summary and Conclusions

8. FIELD, HERBARIUM AND LIBRARY

Introduction

Collecting Herbarium Material

1. How and What to Collect

2. Pressing and Drying

3. Mass Gatherings

Identification

Documentation

Taxonomic Revision

Typification and Nomenclature

1. The Type Method

1a. Typification of Linnaean Taxa

2. Nomenclature

9. PRESENTATION OF DATA

Introduction

Monographs and Revisions

Floristic Works

Keys and Synopses

Diagnoses and Descriptions

Citation

Mapping

The Geographical Morphological Method

Illustrations

Tabulation, Symbolic and Graphical Methods

10. MODIFICATION OF THE PHENOTYPE

Plasticity of the Phenotype

Genotype and Phenotype

Growth substances

The Investigation of Phenotypic Variability

Physical Factors and Modifications

1. Light

2. Temperature

3. Water

4. Wind

5. Soil

6. Biotic

Interaction of Factors

11. VARIATION WITHIN POPULATIONS

Introduction

The Population Concept

Causes of Variation in Populations

Genetic Variation

Recombination and The Reproductive System

Apomixis

Amphimixis

Evolutionary Significance of the Breeding System

Factors Controlling or Modifying The System

The Breeding System and Taxonomy

12. POPULATIONS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

Turesson’s Experiments

The Californian Transect Experiments of Clausen, Keck & Hiesey

The School of Gregor

Other Patterns of Ecotypic Variation

Frequency of Ecotypic Differentiation

The Russian School

Ecotypes in Agriculture and Forestry

General Discussion

1. Nature and Origin of Ecotypes

2. Ecotypes and Ecads

3. Hybridisation and the Origin of Ecotypes

4. Parallelism between Genecotypes and Phenecotypes

5. Sampling Procedures

Recognition and Classification of Ecotypes

Ecotypes and Taxonomy

13. EVOLUTION AND THE DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIES

Introduction

Abrupt and Gradual Speciation

Races, Species and Isolating Mechanisms

1. Geographical and Ecological Isolation

2. Seasonal and Temporal Isolation

3. Mechanical and Ethological Isolation

4. Internal Barriers

Crossability and Species Definitions

Polytopic Origin

1. The Relationships of Taxonomy and Biosystematics

2. The Units of Micro-evolutionary Dynamics

14. HYBRIDISATION AND TAXONOMY

Introduction

Stabilisation of Hybrids

1. Amphidiploidy

2. Introgression: sympatric and Allopatric

3. Hybrid Segregates

Methods of Analysis

Hybrid Complexes

Taxonomic Treatment of Hybrids

CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND AUTHOR INDEX

SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND ORGANISMS